Part of The Grand Glossary: A Collector's Reference. This section covers the specialist vocabulary of antique textiles, from the fundamental structures of woven cloth and the identification of fibres and dyestuffs to the principal decorative traditions of embroidery, lace, tapestry, and printed and painted textiles. Terms are arranged alphabetically within thematic groupings.
Fibres and Yarns
Brocade
A woven fabric in which supplementary weft threads — in silk, metal thread, or both — are introduced during weaving to create a raised pattern on the surface of the ground cloth. In a true brocade, the supplementary threads float across the back of the fabric between pattern areas and are not part of the ground structure; they are visible as loose floats on the reverse. Brocade is distinguished from damask (in which the pattern is formed by a contrast between warp-faced and weft-faced areas of the same ground weave) and from lampas (in which the supplementary pattern threads are bound by a separate binding warp). The term is sometimes used loosely to describe any richly patterned woven fabric.
Cotton
A plant fibre obtained from the seed hairs of the cotton plant (Gossypium species), spun into yarn and woven into a wide range of fabrics. Cotton has been cultivated and woven in India, the Middle East, and the Americas since antiquity; it was imported into Europe in quantity from the late medieval period. The development of mechanised cotton spinning and weaving in England in the late 18th century transformed the cotton industry and made cotton cloth widely available. In the context of antique textiles, cotton is found as the ground fabric of many printed and painted textiles, as the warp of mixed-fibre fabrics, and as the support for embroidery.
Linen
A bast fibre obtained from the stem of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum), one of the oldest cultivated fibres. Linen is strong, smooth, and lustrous when well prepared, with a characteristic cool, slightly stiff handle. It was the principal European cloth fibre for household textiles — sheets, tablecloths, napkins — and the standard ground for many embroidery traditions. Fine linen damask, woven in elaborate figurative and floral patterns for aristocratic tables, was one of the luxury textiles of 17th and 18th-century Europe. The principal European linen-weaving centres included the Low Countries, Ireland, Silesia, and France.
Silk
A protein fibre produced by the larvae of the silkworm (Bombyx mori), cultivated for textile production in China from at least 2700 BCE and introduced to the Byzantine world in the 6th century CE. Silk is the longest, finest, and most lustrous of all natural fibres and has been the supreme luxury textile fibre throughout history. The principal silk-weaving traditions in the Western market include the Byzantine and Islamic traditions (velvets, lampas, and compound weaves), the Italian Renaissance tradition (particularly the velvets and brocades of Genoa, Florence, and Venice), the French silk industry centred on Lyon (the dominant producer of luxury silk from the 17th century onwards), and the great Asian traditions of China, Japan, India, and Persia.
Wool
A protein fibre obtained from the fleece of sheep and certain other animals (cashmere from the cashmere goat, mohair from the angora goat, alpaca, vicuna, and others). Wool was the dominant European cloth fibre from the medieval period to the industrial revolution, the basis of the English cloth trade and a primary source of national wealth. Woven wool textiles range from coarse broadcloth to fine worsted, and from heavy tapestry to delicate challis. The felting property of wool — its ability to mat together under heat, moisture, and pressure — is the basis of felt-making and is a factor in the deterioration of woollen textiles in unsuitable storage conditions.
Metal Thread
Yarn incorporating gold, silver, or gilt-silver wire, used in embroidery and weaving to produce richly lustrous surfaces. Metal threads take several forms: solid drawn wire (the finest and most expensive), strip metal wound around a core of silk or linen (passing thread), and imitation metal threads using gilt paper or synthetic materials (used from the 19th century onwards). The identification of genuine metal threads — as distinct from modern substitutes — is important in the assessment of historic embroideries and woven textiles. Tarnishing and corrosion of metal threads is a conservation concern; the chemical interaction between silver threads and organic dyes has caused the characteristic black discolouration of silver embroidery in many historic textiles.
Weave Structures
Damask
A self-patterned woven fabric in which the design is formed by a contrast between warp-faced and weft-faced areas of the same weave structure, typically a satin weave. The pattern is visible on the front as a contrast between the reflective warp-faced areas and the more matt weft-faced areas; the pattern is reversed on the back. Damask was woven in silk, linen, and wool. Silk damask was the prestige furnishing and dress fabric of the 17th and 18th centuries; linen damask was used for table linen. The pattern in a damask is formed entirely by the weave structure, without supplementary threads.
Lampas
A complex woven structure in which a pattern weft, bound by a separate binding warp, is added to a ground fabric, allowing multi-coloured, highly detailed patterns to be achieved. Lampas was the dominant structure for luxury patterned silks in the medieval and early modern periods, used for ecclesiastical vestments, royal and aristocratic dress, and furnishing fabrics. It is distinguished from brocade by the structural integration of the pattern threads (which are bound into the fabric rather than floating across its back) and from damask by the use of supplementary threads in addition to the ground weave.
Pile Weave (Velvet)
A woven structure in which loops of supplementary warp thread are formed over wires during weaving and then cut to produce a dense, upright pile. Cut pile is velvet; uncut pile is terry or bouclé. Velvet was the supreme luxury fabric of the Renaissance and was woven in silk, and sometimes with a silk pile on a linen or cotton ground (cotton velvet). The principal velvet-weaving centres of the Renaissance and early modern period were Genoa, Florence, Venice, and later Lyon. Voided velvet has areas of pile alternating with areas of ground cloth, creating a two-level pattern. Ciselé velvet has areas of cut and uncut pile, creating a contrast between the shiny cut pile and the more textured uncut loops.
Plain Weave (Tabby)
The simplest of all weave structures, in which the weft passes alternately over and under successive warp threads, producing a balanced, firm cloth. Plain weave is the ground structure of many compound and complex weave types and the structure of many everyday textiles. The quality of a plain-weave cloth depends on the fineness and evenness of the yarn, the density of the sett (the number of warp and weft threads per unit area), and the quality of the finishing.
Satin Weave
A weave structure in which the weft threads pass over several warp threads before interlacing with one, and the interlacing points are distributed so as not to form a visible diagonal line. The result is a smooth, lustrous surface in which the long warp floats dominate (warp satin) or the long weft floats dominate (weft satin or sateen). Satin weave produces the characteristic brilliant, smooth surface of satin fabric. It is the ground weave for damask and many compound weaves.
Twill Weave
A weave structure in which the weft threads pass over and under the warp in a stepped sequence that produces a characteristic diagonal line (the twill line) on the surface of the cloth. Twill weave is stronger and more drapable than plain weave for a given yarn count and is the structure of many important historic textiles, including serge, cassimere, and the compound twills used in Byzantine and Islamic luxury silks. The angle and direction of the twill line, and the relative prominence of warp and weft, vary between twill types.
Dyestuffs
Cochineal
A red dyestuff derived from the dried bodies of the cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus), parasitic on the prickly pear cactus in Mexico and Central America. Cochineal was introduced to Europe by the Spanish following the conquest of Mexico and rapidly replaced the earlier red dyestuffs kermes and madder for the production of the most brilliant and durable reds and crimsons. It produces colours ranging from scarlet (with a tin mordant) to crimson and purple (with an alum or iron mordant). Cochineal can be identified in historic textiles by dye analysis. Its use dates from after approximately 1520 in European textiles and is therefore an indicator of date.
Indigo
A blue dyestuff derived from the leaves of several plants, most importantly Indigofera tinctoria (cultivated in India and later in the Americas) and woad (Isatis tinctoria, the native European source). Indigo is a vat dye — it is insoluble in water and must be chemically reduced to a soluble form before dyeing, then re-oxidised on the fibre. It produces a range of blues from pale sky to deep navy and is one of the most lightfast of all natural dyestuffs, though it may fade in very strong light over long periods. Indigo was the standard blue dyestuff in European textiles from antiquity; its use in resist-printed and discharge-printed cottons was central to the development of the European printed textile industry.
Madder
A red dyestuff derived from the root of the madder plant (Rubia tinctorum), cultivated across Europe and the Middle East. Madder produces a range of colours from pale pink through red to deep burgundy depending on the mordant used; with an alum mordant it gives a warm red; with an iron mordant it produces a dark purplish-brown or black. Madder reds are less brilliant than cochineal but more widely available and less expensive; they were the standard red dyestuff in European textiles before the introduction of cochineal. Madder-dyed reds may be distinguished from cochineal reds by dye analysis and by their characteristically warmer, less bluish tone.
Weld
A yellow dyestuff derived from the plant Reseda luteola, the most important native European source of yellow. Weld produces bright, clear yellows with an alum mordant and was widely used in combination with woad or indigo to produce greens. It is more lightfast than many other natural yellow dyestuffs. The combination of weld yellow and indigo blue to produce green was standard practice in European dyeing before the development of synthetic dyestuffs.
Embroidery
Bargello (Florentine Work)
A form of canvas embroidery worked in wool or silk in a characteristic flame or zigzag pattern formed by vertical straight stitches of varying lengths on canvas. The repeating pattern produces a rippling, flame-like effect across the surface. Bargello is named after a series of chairs in the Bargello museum in Florence, upholstered in a related pattern; it was fashionable across Europe from the 17th to the 18th century for furnishing textiles, chair seats, and small decorative objects. The regularity and precision of the pattern, and the quality and condition of the wool or silk, are the primary assessment criteria.
Berlin Woolwork
A form of canvas embroidery worked from printed charted designs in brightly coloured, imported German wool (Zephyr wool), fashionable in Britain from approximately 1820 to 1880. Berlin woolwork designs were published on hand-coloured squared paper, with each square of the chart corresponding to one stitch on the canvas. The designs encompassed a wide range of subjects: naturalistic flowers, animals, religious subjects, portraits, and sentimental domestic scenes. Berlin woolwork is one of the most commonly encountered forms of Victorian needlework; the quality of the wool, the fineness of the canvas, and the condition of the work are the primary assessment criteria.
Crewelwork
Embroidery worked in loosely twisted two-ply wool (crewel wool) on a linen or linen-cotton twill ground, typically in a range of stitches including stem stitch, chain stitch, satin stitch, and laid work. Crewelwork was fashionable in England and its American colonies from the late 17th to the mid-18th century for bed furnishings, curtains, and decorative panels. English crewelwork of this period is typically worked in a restrained palette of blue-greens, yellows, and warm reds on an unbleached linen ground; American crewelwork tends to be more sparsely worked, with the ground fabric more visible. The sinuous, stylised foliage and exotic flora of English crewelwork designs reflect the influence of Indian chintz.
Goldwork
Embroidery worked principally with metal threads — gold, silver, or gilt-silver — using a range of techniques including couching (in which the metal thread is laid on the surface and secured with a finer thread), padding (in which the metal thread is worked over a raised padding of string or card to create relief), and cutwork (in which the metal thread is cut and the cut ends secured). Goldwork has been used for ecclesiastical vestments, royal and aristocratic dress, and military and ceremonial embroidery throughout history. The preservation of metal threads — their lustre and freedom from tarnishing and corrosion — is a primary condition criterion.
Stumpwork (Raised Work)
A form of English embroidery, fashionable from approximately 1640 to 1700, in which figures, animals, flowers, and other elements are worked in high relief by padding with wool, sawdust, or wire armatures and covering with stitching in silk, metal thread, and a variety of applied materials including mica, beads, seed pearls, and human hair. Stumpwork panels typically depict biblical, allegorical, or heraldic subjects within an architectural or landscape setting. They were worked primarily by young women as demonstrations of needlework skill and survive in considerable numbers, though in variable condition. The complexity of the design, the range of materials and techniques, and the condition of the raised elements and applied materials are the primary assessment criteria.
Lace
Bobbin Lace
Lace made by the manipulation of multiple threads wound onto bobbins, which are crossed and twisted over a pillow following a pricked pattern to build up the lace structure. Bobbin lace can be made as a continuous length (straight lace) or in shaped sections joined together (part lace). The principal European bobbin lace traditions include Flemish laces (Bruges, Mechlin, Brussels, Binche), French laces (Alencon bobbin grounds, Chantilly, Blonde), English laces (Honiton, Bucks point, Torchon), and the Italian tradition (Burano, Genoa). The identification of bobbin lace traditions requires specialist knowledge of thread counts, ground structures, and pattern vocabularies.
Needle Lace
Lace constructed entirely with a needle and single thread, in which the lace structure is built up from a series of buttonhole stitches (point de Bruxelles) worked over a traced outline on a temporary backing. Needle lace allows for greater precision and complexity of design than bobbin lace and was the medium of the most prestigious European lace traditions: Venetian needle lace (point de Venise, gros point, and rose point), Alençon needle lace, and Brussels needle lace (point de gaze). The finest needle laces are among the most technically demanding and time-consuming of all textile arts.
Tapestry
Tapestry Weave
A weft-faced plain weave in which coloured weft threads are woven back and forth across limited areas of the warp to build up the design, rather than running selvedge to selvedge as in a standard woven fabric. The warp is completely covered by the weft and is not visible in the finished textile. Tapestry weave allows for pictorial designs of great complexity and was used for wall hangings, cushion covers, seat furniture, and a wide range of decorative textiles. The term tapestry is sometimes used loosely to describe any decorative textile; in the strict sense it refers only to textiles woven in tapestry weave.
Verdure Tapestry
A tapestry dominated by foliage, trees, plants, and landscape elements, with animals and sometimes figures in the middle distance, but without a primary narrative or figural subject. Verdure tapestries were produced in large quantities in the Flemish weaving centres — particularly Oudenaarde and Enghien — from the 15th to the 18th centuries and were the most widely used form of tapestry wall decoration in European interiors. They range in quality from coarse, repetitive productions to tapestries of considerable artistic merit with lively, naturalistic foliage and well-drawn animals.
Printed and Painted Textiles
Chintz
A cotton fabric printed (or originally painted) with floral designs, typically with a glazed finish. The word derives from the Hindi chint (spotted or variegated cloth). Indian painted and printed cottons (palampores, chintzes, and mordant-printed textiles) were imported into Europe from the 17th century in enormous quantities and stimulated the European printed cotton industry. English and French chintzes of the 18th and 19th centuries — printed by woodblock or copperplate and later by roller — encompass a wide range of qualities and designs, from naturalistic botanical florals to the stylised patterns of the later Victorian period.
Toile de Jouy
A printed cotton or linen fabric produced at the Oberkampf factory at Jouy-en-Josas, near Versailles, from 1760 to 1843, characterised by pictorial designs — pastoral scenes, mythological subjects, chinoiserie, topographical views — printed in a single colour (typically red, blue, purple, sepia, or black) on a white or cream ground by the copperplate printing process. The term is now used generically for any pictorial, single-colour printed cotton in this style, though strictly it refers only to the products of the Oberkampf factory. Genuine Jouy fabrics may bear the factory mark; the quality of the printing — the clarity and detail of the design — and the condition of the fabric are the primary assessment criteria.
Condition and Care
Fading and Light Damage
The irreversible loss of colour in a textile caused by exposure to light, particularly ultraviolet radiation. Many historic dyestuffs — including most yellow dyes, some red dyes, and certain early synthetic dyes — are highly susceptible to fading. Faded textiles may have lost colours entirely, creating an imbalance in the design; areas previously protected from light (by folds, linings, or framing mounts) may retain their original colour and reveal the extent of the change. Fading is irreversible and cannot be corrected by conservation treatment. Textiles should be stored and displayed away from direct light and UV sources.
Insect Damage
Damage caused by the larvae of textile-eating insects, principally the clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) and the carpet beetle (Anthrenus species), which feed on protein fibres — wool, silk, and feathers — but not on plant fibres (cotton and linen) unless they are soiled with protein. Moth damage typically appears as irregular areas of loss in woollen and silk textiles, often following the pattern of the pile or the thicker areas of the cloth; carpet beetle damage tends to produce a more even surface grazing. Active infestations require immediate treatment; historic damage is stable but may be structurally significant if it has weakened the textile.
Splits and Shredding
The physical deterioration of a textile through the breaking of fibres, caused by the combined effects of light, acid deterioration, mechanical stress, and age. Silk is particularly vulnerable to shredding due to the practice of weighting — treating silk with metalite salts to increase its weight and lustre — which accelerates the degradation of the fibre over time. Heavily weighted silks of the late 19th and early 20th centuries are notoriously fragile and may be in an advanced state of shredding. The extent and distribution of splits and shredding, and whether they are stable or progressing, are important condition criteria.
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